ADHD Meds: Why the “Limitless” Effect is Just an Illusion! ADHD Pills for Healthy People? The Placebo Effect is Stronger Than the Drug! 

Many students and high-performers turn to ADHD medications like Adderall to boost their cognitive performance. But does it really do anything if you don’t actually have ADHD? A fascinating study from the University of Alabama shows: The effect is mostly in your head!

🔬 The Study (Cropsey et al., 2017): Researchers used a so-called “Balanced Placebo Design” with 32 healthy students (non-ADHD). The twist: There were four scenarios. Participants either received the real medication (Adderall) or a placebo, but were sometimes told the truth and sometimes lied to (“Here is your pill,” even though it was sugar, and vice versa).

🧠 The Tests: Participants had to complete a whole series of cognitive tests, including:

Memory: Remembering words (CVLT-II) and number sequences (Digit Span).

Attention: The “Connors Continuous Performance Task” (CPT) – staying focused over time and reacting to specific signals.

Verbal Fluency: Quickly finding words starting with specific letters (COWAT).

Executive Functions: Multitasking and planning (Trails A/B, Stroop Test).

📉 The Results:

No Super-Intelligence: The medication failed to improve performance in 29 out of 31 tests. There were only minimal improvements in very simple tasks (like remembering the first few words of a list).

The Power of Belief: Those who believed they had taken the medication (regardless of whether they actually did) showed better long-term memory and attention performance than those who thought they had taken a placebo.

Subjective Delusion: Those who believed they were “on drugs” rated their own performance much higher – regardless of their actual results.

Conclusion: For healthy people, these medications offer hardly any objective advantage for complex tasks. The “boost” many feel is often just the placebo effect – the mere expectation that you are now more powerful.

Research:

Buergler, S., Sezer, D., Bagge, N., Kirsch, I., Locher, C., Carvalho, C., & Gaab, J. (2023). Imaginary pills and open-label placebos can reduce test anxiety by means of placebo mechanisms. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 2624.

Cropsey, K. L., et al. (2017). “Mixed-amphetamine salts expectancies among college students: Is stimulant induced cognitive enhancement a placebo effect?” Drug and Alcohol Dependence.

Esposito, M., Cocimano, G., Ministrieri, F., Rosi, G. L., Di Nunno, N., Messina, G., … & Salerno, M. (2021). Smart drugs and neuroenhancement: what do we know?. Frontiers in Bioscience-Landmark, 26(8), 347-359.

Whitehurst, L. N., Morehouse, A., & Mednick, S. C. (2024). Can stimulants make you smarter, despite stealing your sleep?. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 28(8), 702-713.

Winkler, A., & Hermann, C. (2019). Placebo-and nocebo-effects in cognitive neuroenhancement: when expectation shapes perception. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 498.

Can the stars reveal our destiny?

The belief in the wisdom of the stars is on the rise once again (Andersson et al., 2022). And who could blame them? The idea that our fate is planned long in advance and can be read in the stars is both fascinating and romantic.
However, many astrological predictions can be tested easily. Some researchers have gone to the trouble of analyzing large data sets. Is there perhaps a spark of truth in the predictions after all? Are zodiac signs really a reflection of our inner traits? Or is there nothing more than a myth behind the horoscopes?
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Studies (just a small selection):

Helgertz, J., & Scott, K. (2020). The validity of astrological predictions on marriage and divorce: a longitudinal analysis of Swedish register data. Genus, 76(1), 34.

Steyn, R. (2013). Astrological Planetary Alignment and Personality Differences: Saving us from Ignorance. International Journal of Science in Society, 4(1).

Reichardt, C. S. (2010). Testing astrological predictions about sex, marriage, and selfishness. Skeptic (Altadena, CA), 15(4), 40-46.

Even small language variations can have a big impact on the behavior of our fellow human beings. So we should pay close attention to our formulations in communication …

Studies (small sample only):

Cimpian, A., Arce, H. M. C., Markman, E. M., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Subtle linguistic cues affect children’s motivation. Psychological science, 18(4), 314-316.

Fausey, C. M., & Boroditsky, L. (2010). Subtle linguistic cues influence perceived blame and financial liability. Psychonomic bulletin & review, 17(5), 644-650.

Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., Biggers, D. R., & Hendry, D. J. (2016). A field experiment shows that subtle linguistic cues might not affect voter behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(26), 7112-7117.

Rhodes, M., Leslie, S. J., Yee, K. M., & Saunders, K. (2018). Subtle Linguistic Cues Increase Girls’ Engagement in Science. Psychological Science, 0956797618823670.

Is it possible to simulate the medical effect of pills by simply imagining taking one? A fascinating new study published in the journal Nature provides answers and could help to finally harness the placebo effect. However, the idea of an imaginary “hypnosis pill” is decades old and was developed in particular by Steve the Shazer – one of the most famous psychotherapists of all time. In the video, two of his most famous cases are presented.

Background:
Steve de Shazer was a renowned therapist who explored new ways to heal. In his pursuit of alternative treatments, he developed the idea of an imaginary hypnosis pill. He recognized that the placebo effect, in which people experience improvements because of their belief in the effects of a treatment, was a powerful force. Based on this concept, he created the idea of a pill that could relieve headaches and sleep problems, although it was purely imaginary.
Steve de Shazer began by educating his patients about the imaginary hypnosis pill and gaining their full confidence in its healing power. He explained to them that the pill contained special ingredients designed to relieve their symptoms. Through his empathetic communication and the creation of a trusting atmosphere, he was able to strengthen his patients’ faith in the pill’s effectiveness.
Amazingly, many of his patients actually reported a reduction in their headaches and an improvement in their sleep after sessions with the imaginary hypnosis pill. Steve believed that believing in the pill’s effects caused people’s subconscious minds to make positive changes in their bodies. It was a demonstration of the power of the imagination and the mind over the body.
body.
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Studies (small sample only):

Buergler, S., Sezer, D., Bagge, N., Kirsch, I., Locher, C., Carvalho, C., & Gaab, J. (2023). Imaginary pills and open-label placebos can reduce test anxiety by means of placebo mechanisms. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 2624.

de Shazer, S. (1984). The imaginary pill technique. Journal of Strategic and Systemic Therapies, 3(1), 30-34.

Hahn, A., Göhler, A. C., Hermann, C., & Winkler, A. (2022). Even when you know it is a placebo, you experience less sadness: First evidence from an experimental open-label placebo investigation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 304, 159-166.

Kaptchuk, T. J., & Miller, F. G. (2018). Open label placebo: can honestly prescribed placebos evoke meaningful therapeutic benefits?. Bmj, 363.

No matter if we are in the supermarket or shopping online: Every day we are manipulated by strategies from sales and price psychology. Extensive research has shown how we are seduced into buying by different price presentations. Not only the well-known nine prices play a central role, but we are also influenced by the color and the relative size of the price presentation. As is so often the case, those who know the marketing strategies can more easily protect themselves from them.

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Studies (small sample only):

Coulter, K. S., & Coulter, R. A. (2005). Size does matter: The effects of magnitude representation congruency on price perceptions and purchase likelihood. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(1), 64-76.

Felser, G. (2015). Werbe-und Konsumentenpsychologie. Springer-Verlag: Berlin.

Puccinelli, N. M., Chandrashekaran, R., Grewal, D., & Suri, R. (2013). Are men seduced by red? The effect of red versus black prices on price perceptions. Journal of Retailing, 89(2), 115-125.

Schindler, R. M., & Kibarian, T. M. (1996). Increased consumer sales response though use of 99-ending prices. Journal of Retailing, 72(2), 187-199.

Thomas, M., & Morwitz, V. (2005). Penny wise and pound foolish: the left-digit effect in price cognition. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(1), 54-64.

Thomas, M., Simon, D. H., & Kadiyali, V. (2007). Do consumers perceive precise prices to be lower than round prices? Evidence from laboratory and market data. Evidence from Laboratory and Market Data (September 2007). Johnson School at Cornell University Research Paper, (09-07).

Van Droogenbroeck, E., Van Hove, L., & Cordemans, S. (2018). Do red prices also work online?: An extension of Puccinelli et al.(2013). Color Research & Application, 43(1), 110-113.

Wu, C., & Cosguner, K. (2020). Profiting from the decoy effect: A case study of an online diamond retailer. Marketing Science, 39(5), 974-995.

Xiao, Q., Zeng, S., & Feldman, G. (2020). Revisiting the decoy effect: replication and extension of Ariely and Wallsten (1995) and Connolly, Reb, and Kausel (2013)‎. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 4(2), 164-198.

Yang, S. S., Kimes, S. E., & Sessarego, M. M. (2009). Menu price presentation influences on consumer purchase behavior in restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(1), 157-160.

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Definition “psychology of pricing” – what is it? 

The psychology of pricing refers to the study of how people perceive and respond to different prices for goods and services. It involves understanding the psychological factors that influence people’s decisions to purchase or not purchase a product, as well as the ways in which prices can be used to influence people’s perceptions and behaviors.

One example of the psychology of pricing is the concept of “anchoring,” which refers to the tendency for people to rely on initial information as a reference point when making decisions. For example, if a person sees a product for sale at a high price, they may perceive it as being of higher quality or value, even if similar products are available at lower prices. This can lead people to pay more for a product than they otherwise might, simply because they are anchored to the initial high price.

The quick way to higher intelligence?

When children (but also adults) encounter difficulties, they tend to think handicapping thoughts: “I’m so stupid,” “I can’t do it.” All of these negative thoughts consume cognitive capacity.

A study by French researchers shows:

A simple reframing can succeed in leveraging this negative mechanism and freeing up the cognitive capacity so that it is once again available for more important tasks.

Study:

Autin, F., & Croizet, J. C. (2012). Improving working memory efficiency by reframing metacognitive interpretation of task difficulty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(4), 610.

Many people know the awkward situation: You meet someone on the street and just want to say hello, and suddenly your voice doesn’t sound relaxed and melodious, but slightly broken. And you think to yourself, “How awkward. That sounded like I wasn’t idiot who can not speak.”

In many ways, our vocal cords are like muscles that need constant exercise. In particular, if we speak little over a long period of time (or speak with incorrect speaking technique over a long period of time), the voice can suffer.

Because of what is called embodied cognition, voice failures can sometimes feel like a personal failure. On the other hand, a relaxed-sounding, deep voice can also have a relaxing effect on the speakern…

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Studies (small sample only):

Foglia, L., & Wilson, R. A. (2013). Embodied cognition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 4(3), 319-325.

Fugate, J. M., Macrine, S. L., & Cipriano, C. (2019). The role of embodied cognition for transforming learning. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 7(4), 274-288.

Gronau, Q. F., Van Erp, S., Heck, D. W., Cesario, J., Jonas, K. J., & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2017). A Bayesian model-averaged meta-analysis of the power pose effect with informed and default priors: The case of felt power. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 2(1), 123-138.

Marmolejo-Ramos, F., Murata, A., Sasaki, K., Yamada, Y., Ikeda, A., Hinojosa, J. A., … & Ospina, R. (2020). Your face and moves seem happier when I smile. Experimental Psychology.

Röhricht, F., Gallagher, S., Geuter, U., & Hutto, D. D. (2014). Embodied cognition and body psychotherapy: The construction of new therapeutic environments. Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture, 10(1).

Stel, M., Dijk, E. V., Smith, P. K., Dijk, W. W. V., & Djalal, F. M. (2012). Lowering the pitch of your voice makes you feel more powerful and think more abstractly. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(4), 497-502.

When we get to know somebody who has a somewhat similar personality we immediately feel a connection to this person. Unfortunately this can be used to influence us…

Literatur

Aunel, R. K., & Basil, M. D. (1994). A Relational Obligations Approach to the Foot‐In‐The‐Mouth Effect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(6), 546-556.

Emswiller, T., Deaux, K., & Willits, J. E. (1971). Similarity, sex, and requests for small favors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1(3), 284-291.

Wegner, D. M., & Crano, W. D. (1975). Racial factors in helping behavior: An unobtrusive field experiment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(5), 901.